(This article was written by Angela Mason Foster, Extension Master Gardener℠ Volunteer)

Few plants have shaped human civilization as profoundly as Theobroma cacao, the cacao tree. This remarkable plant, native to the rainforests of Central and South America, has been cultivated for thousands of years, originally revered by the Olmecs, Maya, and Aztecs before becoming a global commodity. Today, cacao is primarily grown in West Africa, where it sustains millions of farmers and fuels a multi-billion-dollar chocolate industry. But behind this beloved treat lies a complex history and an industry facing significant challenges, from environmental threats to economic struggles.

The Ancient Origins of Cacao

The cacao tree is believed to have been first domesticated by the Olmecs, one of the earliest civilizations in Mesoamerica, around 1500 BCE. Evidence suggests that cacao was used both as a food and in spiritual ceremonies. The Maya later refined its use, creating a bitter, frothy beverage called xocoatl, often mixed with chili, vanilla, and other spices.

For the Aztecs, cacao was considered divine. They used the beans as currency—100 beans could buy a turkey, while just a few could purchase a piece of fruit. Cacao was also a staple in religious ceremonies and was thought to bestow strength and vitality. When the Spanish arrived in the early 16th century, they brought cacao back to Europe, where sugar and milk were added, transforming it into the sweeter chocolate we recognize today.

Cacao’s Journey to West Africa

Although cacao is native to the Americas, today, about 70% of the world’s supply comes from West Africa, particularly from Ivory Coast and Ghana. The Portuguese and Spanish first introduced cacao to their tropical colonies in the 17th century, but it was in the 19th century that large-scale production took off under European colonial rule.

Today, millions of smallholder farmers in West Africa depend on cacao as their primary source of income. However, despite chocolate’s global demand, most cacao farmers earn only a fraction of the final product’s price, making poverty a persistent issue in cacao-producing regions.

From Bean to Chocolate: How Cacao Becomes Chocolate

The process of turning cacao beans into chocolate is labor-intensive and involves several crucial steps:

1. Harvesting

Cacao trees grow in hot, humid climates near the equator. The trees produce football-sized pods that contain 30 to 50 cacao beans each, surrounded by a sweet, white pulp. The pods do not ripen simultaneously, so they must be hand-harvested using machetes.

2. Fermentation and Drying

After the beans are extracted from the pods, they undergo fermentation, usually in wooden boxes or banana leaves, for about five to seven days. This step is essential for developing the beans’ characteristic chocolate flavor. Once fermented, the beans are spread out in the sun to dry for another one to two weeks.

3. Roasting and Grinding

Dried beans are then roasted at high temperatures, which further enhances their flavor. The shells are removed, leaving behind the cacao nibs, which are then ground into a paste known as chocolate liquor. Despite its name, this thick, bitter paste contains no alcohol—it is simply pure cacao in liquid form.

4. Pressing and Refining

Chocolate liquor can be separated into two main components: cocoa butter (the fat) and cocoa solids (which become cocoa powder). The liquor is also mixed with ingredients such as sugar, milk, and vanilla to create different types of chocolate.

5. Conching and Tempering

The final steps in chocolate production include conching, a process in which chocolate is continuously mixed and aerated to develop its smooth texture. Finally, the chocolate is tempered, a precise heating and cooling process that stabilizes its structure, giving it the glossy sheen and snap we associate with high-quality chocolate.

The Environmental and Social Challenges of Cacao Production

While chocolate is one of the world’s most beloved treats, its production comes with significant environmental and ethical concerns.

Deforestation and Climate Change

Cacao trees thrive in tropical rainforests, but the increasing demand for chocolate has led to widespread deforestation, particularly in West Africa. Farmers often clear-cut forests to make room for cacao plantations, leading to habitat destruction for species like chimpanzees and elephants. Additionally, cacao trees are sensitive to climate change—rising temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns threaten future yields, making sustainable farming practices crucial.

Poverty and Child Labor

Despite the chocolate industry’s massive profits, most cacao farmers live in extreme poverty, earning less than $2 per day. Low wages force many farmers to rely on child labor, with reports of children working under hazardous conditions in cacao-growing regions of Ghana and Ivory Coast. Efforts to improve fair trade practices and raise farmers’ wages have gained momentum, but the issue remains a serious concern.

Sustainable Solutions

Organizations such as the Rainforest Alliance and Fairtrade International are working to promote ethical cacao farming by encouraging agroforestry, which integrates cacao trees with other crops to preserve biodiversity. Additionally, major chocolate companies are investing in more sustainable supply chains to ensure fairer wages and environmentally responsible farming. However, consumer awareness and demand for ethically sourced chocolate are critical to driving lasting change.

The Future of Cacao

As climate change, economic inequality, and ethical concerns shape the future of chocolate production, researchers are exploring new solutions. Scientists are developing drought-resistant cacao varieties, and companies are experimenting with alternatives like lab-grown chocolate. Meanwhile, the push for fair wages and sustainable farming continues.

Consumers can also make a difference by choosing ethically sourced chocolate with certifications like Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, or Direct Trade, supporting brands that prioritize sustainability and fair compensation for farmers.

Suggested Reading List

For those who want to delve deeper into the fascinating history and complex industry behind chocolate, these books offer insightful perspectives:

• “The True History of Chocolate” by Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe – A comprehensive look at cacao’s ancient origins and transformation into modern chocolate.
• “Chocolate: A Bittersweet Saga of Dark and Light” by Mort Rosenblum – An engaging exploration of the global chocolate trade and its impact.
• “The New Taste of Chocolate” by Maricel E. Presilla – A detailed examination of cacao varieties, cultivation, and the art of chocolate-making.
• “Chocolate Wars: The 150-Year Rivalry Between the World’s Greatest Chocolate Makers” by Deborah Cadbury – A fascinating history of the chocolate industry’s biggest players.
• “Cocoa” by Kristy Leissle – A deep dive into the economic, environmental, and ethical challenges of cacao farming.

Conclusion

From the sacred rituals of Mesoamerican civilizations to the vast cacao plantations of West Africa, the story of Theobroma cacao is one of discovery, adaptation, and global trade. The chocolate we enjoy today is the result of centuries of innovation and labor, yet it comes with real challenges for farmers and the environment. As consumers, understanding where our chocolate comes from and supporting sustainable practices can help ensure that this treasured treat remains available for generations to come.

If you have questions about your home garden or landscape, reach out to Gene Fox, Consumer Horticulture Agent with the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Email Gene at gene_fox@ncsu.edu or call (252) 946-0111. Master Gardeners are available on the Greenline Mondays and Wednesdays from 10:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. to assist with your horticultural needs. Don’t forget to check out the Beaufort County Master Gardeners Facebook page for additional resources.